Consequently, there are over 1.5 million children with a parent in state or federal prison, and over 3 million when including those released or on parole (Glaze and Maruschak,
2008; Mumola, 2000). Due to the gendered implications of mass incarceration, over 90% of all parental incarceration experienced is paternal incarceration (Gellar et al 2009; West and Sabol 2009), making paternal incarceration central to understanding wider societal trends in fragile families. However, the rate of growth in incareration for females has began to outpace that of males (Kruttschnitt & Gartner 2005),