Grennes meticulously elucidates the devastating impact of diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, which were unwittingly brought to North America by European explorers and settlers. These diseases, to which indigenous populations had little to no immunity, wrought havoc and caused catastrophic population declines, resulting in the collapse of entire civilizations. The demographic upheaval unleashed by these epidemics fundamentally reshaped the social and political landscape of North America, ultimately paving the way for European colonization and hegemony. Moreover, the Columbian Exchange served as a conduit for the transmission of ideas, technologies, and cultural practices between the Old World and the Americas. Grennes astutely observes how European innovations in navigation, agriculture, and manufacturing permeated indigenous societies, catalyzing their diversification and advancement. Conversely, the exchange also enriched European societies, as they assimilated indigenous knowledge and products into their own cultural tapestry, fostering a vibrant cross-pollination of ideas and