Epidemiology Of Depression

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1. Introduction Depression is disorder marked by enduring negative mood that effects more than 350 million people world wide of all ages (World Health Organization). It is associated with a wide range of other mental disorders that exacerbate the adverse effects of depression on the individual and society at large (Kessler et. al., 1998; Hirschfeld, 1999). While the etiology of depression is not clear, several risk factors include parenting practices and emotion regulation deficits (insert). Indeed, the authoritarian parenting style is predictive of depression severity (Jackson LM, Pratt MW, Hunsberger B, Pancer SM., 2005; McKinney C, Donnelly R, Renk K., 2008), as well as emotion regulation difficulties (Eisenberg et al., 1999), which in …show more content…
Families are able to influence the development and retaining of ER by exhibiting emotional displays and interaction in front of their children (Parke, 1994). In a family environment, children are able to learn what is socially acceptable to display, or what is expected for them to feel in certain situations. Although most research focuses on negative emotion, children are able to learn both negative and positive emotions by observing parents. How a parent regulates their own emotion may dictate what type of parenting style they practice. Adolescents in particular demonstrate that parental affection and other positive emotions (expressed) are related to low levels of externalized behavior and control over their emotion regulations (Contreras, Kerns, Weimer, Gentzler, & Tomich, 2000; Eisenberg et al., 2005). However, it is believed there is an ‘optimal’ level of control between presenting negative and positive emotions in front of their children, (Morris et al. 2007). Parents who express positive emotions are more likely to be considered authoritative parents (warm yet firm) and parents who express negative emotions may be more authoritarian (cold and firm) in nature (Halberstadt et al., 1999). Likewise, observed behavioral control has been shown to effect children’s emotional regulation …show more content…
The ERQ measures individual’s regulation of emotion via cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. It is a 10 item self-report questionnaire that uses a 1 to 7 scale with 1 being strongly disagree, 4 being natural, and 7 being strongly agree. Many of the items in this assessment start with “When I am feeling” or “When I want to feel”, implying that the individual will need to assess their emotions and their thinking processes.
The Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) (Buri, 1991) will also be given to participants. The PAQ measures authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive paternal and maternal parenting styles in a total of 60 items (30 items for each parent). It is a self-report measure, with participants rating on a scale of 1 to 5, 1being strongly disagree, and 5 being strongly agree. Try to find Urdu version (Babree, 1997)
Beck’s Depression Inventory (BDI-II) (1996) is a self-report survey with 21 multiple-choice items to measure depression. It is one of the most widely used tools to do so and scores questions on a scale of 0-3. It measures symptoms of depression, such as hopelessness, feelings of being punished, and physical symptoms. The BDI-II also has standardized cuts offs, with 0-13 being minimal depression, 14-19 being mild depression, 20-28 being moderate depression, and 29-63 being severe depression.
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