Cases involving use of force – including use of deadly force – implicate a person’s Fourth Amendment right to be free “against unreasonable searches and seizures.” The determination of whether a use of force is excessive requires the court to establish whether an officer’s actions were “objectively reasonable” given the totality of the circumstances. Critics argue that this standard has the practical effect of giving officers unfettered discretion in their interaction with civilians because it does not allow the court to second-guess the judgement of law enforcement officers and make it nearly impossible to prove that an individual’s Fourth Amendment rights were violated. Specifically, this inquiry ignores the fact that an officer’s conduct may have contributed to his need to